Pre-Reformation Mass

             The sacrament of the eucharist known as the mass in medieval England was the principal rite of the church. From the Prayer Book, 1549, it became known as Holy Communion. In pre-Reformation times mass had to be undertaken between dawn and midday on every day. Three masses, midnight, dawn and mid-morning, were usually held on Christmas Day and two held for Easter on Easter Eve[1] and Easter morning. It was taken in the afternoon on the quarterly Saturdays known as Ember days.[2] The mass on Sunday was known as ‘High Mass’ and involved procession, choir singing in plainsong and in the cathedral was undertaken by several clergy. There would be acolytes to carry candles, incense and holy water. ‘Low Mass’ on a weekday could involve one priest and several helpers; perhaps a deacon or sub-deacon. Weddings had a nuptial mass and funerals had a requiem mass. The Lady Chapel would have had a ‘Lady mass’, and this was usually celebrated daily. Mass was said in the many chantries of the cathedral, but it was not always observed. Dean Denton in 1428, stipulated masses were necessary each day in turn from the sixth to the tenth hour and after the consecration during high mass one of them was to say mass for the benefit of travellers. In 1473, Dean Haywood stipulated a mass every Friday morning to be sung in the Name of Jesus followed by a requiem mass for all the bishops, deans, and canons of Lichfield.

A priest celebrating mass, c. 1410. MS Ludwig IX 5 fol. 171. Getty Museum Collection. It shows two priests and perhaps a deacon.

     

    The timing for the mass was often a problem. Up to the late-14th century the timing could be by sunrise and sunset; the ancient way of Judaism. This meant it began with a calling bell, but this would have varied through the year and was somewhat subjective. This was replaced by ignoring light and dark and timing from midnight. It was standard by the 15th-century and assisted by sundials known as mass-clocks. However, this was still imprecise and there are records of parishioners complaining of not knowing when a priest was about to begin mass.

A mass-clock (sundial), though not its original place. . A sundial was known in 1491 and probably the first cathedral clock. A sundial was erected in 1785 on the west front to regulate the clock in the tower. It was removed in 1881 and in 1929 placed on a column on the south side. The domed, cube dial has a gnomon on each face with Arabic numerals.

     By the early 15th-century mechanical clocks were introduced and services came to have set hours. There was even adjustment of times for summer and winter. Secular cathedrals, like Lichfield, became the model for churches to copy. Eventually, the church daily times were divided into three parts, at night, early morning with mass often at 9 am and late afternoon. Mass would have taken at least an hour.

        

The liturgy was set out in the missals of Sarum (Salisbury), York and Hereford, with Lichfield recorded as following the material from Sarum. The Sarum Missal was first partially adapted and recorded in the Statutes of Bishop Heyworth, 1420–1447. The following is the pre-Reformation rite described by Orme,[3] with the caveat there would have been minor changes depending on celebrating a festival day. Almost all words were in Latin.

Before the service the priest sprinkled water with salt (aspersion [4]) on the altar and those assistants close to the altar. They might then process around the cathedral clockwise asperging side altars etc. The priest then dressed himself with a chasuble, whilst hymns were sung, and moved to the altar, now lit with one or two candles. He faced the altar and gave an introit, a short Biblical text said or sung. He offered a prayer of confession to those around him in the chancel and they responded. This was followed by a sign of peace to his assistant, kissing the altar and making a sign of the cross. The hymn ‘Glory be to God on high’ would be sung as incense was wafted onto the altar followed by onto the priest.

            The priest would then turn to face the congregation and give the special prayer for the day followed by a helper reading the epistle from the south side of the choir. The priest with the choir would then sing a text from a Psalm followed by the gospel reading made from the north side of the choir. The priest or choir then sang the Creed. Perhaps, a sermon and announcements would be given. Gifts could then be taken by clerks and how this was done differed between churches. Sometimes a collection for the poor would be requested. The mass in fact did not need a congregation, lay worshippers present needed to watch, pray at the right times if they could discern this and keep quiet. The Sarum missal gives virtually no attention to the laity.

            The mass started by placing on the altar a paten holding a wafer of unleavened bread[5] and a small chalice[6] with wine and water. Again, the altar was censed before being taken to everyone in the cathedral. The priest turned to the altar, said a short prayer to God and to the Virgin followed by the choir singing ‘Lift up your hearts’ and ‘Holy, holy, holy, Lord God of hosts.’ It ended with the ringing of the sanctus bell. The priest in a low, almost inaudible voice began the consecration. There is some evidence the priest might have said this most holy part of the service in a louder voice in some cathedrals. Many viewed this canon to be personal to the priest and an almost silent voice was respectful. The canon included prayers for the pope, bishop, king, priest himself, patron saint(s) (Chad and Mary for Lichfield) and sometimes the apostles. The priest venerated the host (bread) and held it aloft for the first time. The pronouncement of Christ’s words changed the bread into Christ’s physical body and blood. It was signalled by ringing a small handbell or bells.[7] The sanctus bell was then rung and this could be heard outside of the cathedral. Those who heard the bell were expected to genuflect. The priest repeated this rite with the wine and again it was raised aloft. He made the sign of the cross five times on the chalice using the bread.

     Transubstantiation of the bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ was published as doctrine in 1215 at the Fourth Lateran Council. The change occurred at the raising up of the bread and wine and the elevation became known as ‘seeing God’ or ‘seeing one’s Maker.’ It was therefore important for the laity to see this event. From this time the chancels became better lit up with larger windows. Chancel and choir screens had squints for people to peer through. It is unknown how those in the nave of Lichfield cathedral could see through to the high altar. It is more likely the happening was known from the sound of the handbell.

Mass from an image taken from Cambridge, The Fitzwilliam Museum, MS 22 fol. 80. Notice the variety of acolytes in the chancel, including one pulling on a bell. Candles are apparently absent.

 

            The priest then sang ‘The Lord’s Prayer’ (Pater Noster) with the choir or clerk replying with the last line. He then broke the bread into three pieces and prayed. The choir meanwhile sang the Agnus Dei. The priest added one piece of bread to the wine as a sign of mingling the body and blood and then kissed the chalice. He took the pax or pax-board,[8] a tablet of ivory, wood or metal marked with the symbol of Christ, kissed it, and handed it to a clerk who passed it on to those in the chancel and then the laity in the cathedral for everyone to kiss.[9] The person holding the pax said ‘pax tecum’ and received the response ‘et cum spiritu tuo’, that is, ‘Peace to you, And with your spirit’.

 

Possible Pax, 183 x 120 mm, made with copper, mid-to-late 15th-century from St Georges Church, South Acre, Norfolk. Its wear suggests this usage.

     

Meanwhile the priest bowed and genuflected in front of the altar and then consumed the bread and wine. He did not share the host, even if other priests were present. On Easter morning everyone shared the communion and therefore there was a need for a large paten, tankard to hold the wine and water and several large chalices for distribution.

Large tankards and chalices donated by Bishop John Hacket for Easter morning communion, mid-17th century. From 1549 Cranmer wrote a Prayer Book stipulating lay people could take Communion in the chancel on Sundays and festival days. Chalices and tankards had to be larger. In the 1552 Prayer Book the Communion was held in the nave with an altar table and parishioners had to attend at least three times in the year with Easter one of the occasions. The bread was now placed in the hand, not the mouth. Both sexes could now communicate together.

             The mass ended with the washing of the priest’s hands, the paten and chalices with un-consecrated wine which was then drunk by the priest. Further prayers were offered and then ‘The Lord be with you’ was said with the response ‘And with your spirit.’ The deacon sang ‘Let us bless the Lord’ and the response was ‘Thanks be to God.’ Before dismissal there could be a reading from the Gospel of John. There might be bidding prayers for members, or past members, and benefactors of the church. These prayers could be paid for and this was contentious. The clergy would exit separately via a door on the north side of the cathedral.

    Surplus consecrated hosts were kept in a container called a pyx and suspended above the altar. There are accounts that indicate people entering the church considered this leftover bread was sacred and to see it was more than spiritual. No one would go blind that day, travellers would reach their destination unharmed, expectant mothers would give birth in safety. Every day was considered dependent on God’s grace.

    Church courts often sentenced those convicted of moral or spiritual crimes to do public penance within the church. This might include walking ahead of the procession at the start of mass wearing a loose tunic without a belt, having no shoes and carrying a large candle. They might be beaten as they walked and have to hold the candle throughout the service.[10]

Paten and chalice found in the nave excavation, 2003. The buried objects were connected to priest’s coffins and clearly showed their office.

Cranmer’s revision

Providing bread and wine for all was not undertaken until Cranmer introduced a communion order in 1548 followed by his Book of Common Prayer in 1549.[11] He followed this with the Book of Common Prayer in 1552 in which transubstantiation was not mentioned and the real presence of Christ in the Mass was within the faithful believer. The words given by the priest were now, “Take and eat this, in remembrance that Christ died for thee, and feed on him in thy heart by faith, with understanding.”

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[1] The ancient Jewish understanding was the day for the church began in the evening and not midnight or even dawn.

[2] The four occasions in the year with prayer, fasting and sometimes ordination.

[3] N. Orme, Going to Church in Medieval England, (Yale and London: 2022), 212–217.

[4] The name comes from the first word in the 9th verse of Psalm 51, Psalm 50 in the Vulgate.

[5] The 1345/6 Sacrist’s Roll mentions ‘four pyxes (pyxides) of ivory for the Eucharist, three of which are ornamented with silver, and the other is of copper.’ There is also a ‘pyx, embroidered with pearls, for the Body of Christ, the gift of Walter de Langton, Bishop. These are containers to hold the bread.

[6] The 1345/6 Sacrist’s Roll lists “one chalice, ornamented with precious stones, with its paten. Also, gold chalices. Also, nine chalices of silver and gilt, with their patens. And one white silver chalice. Also, one good chalice of silver gilt at the altar of the Blessed Virgin.” This list indicates the taking of eucharist in the many chapels in the cathedral.

[7] The 1345/6 Sacrist’s Roll mentions two hand bells.

[8] There is no mention of a pax in the 1345 Sacrist’s Roll, but it does mention “two images of ivory of the Blessed Mary, of which one is greater and the other less.” These were probably used like a pax. There are less than a dozen paxes surviving in English churches.

[9] The pax began to replace actual kisses in the 13th-century because of concerns on the sexual, social and medical implications of actual kissing. Sometimes the pax was wiped between each kiss.

[10] N. Orme (2022), 218.

[11] The Book of the Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church after the Use of the Church of England, 1549. This was in the reign of Edward VI.