Chapterhouse

     The chapterhouse is an elongated octagon consisting of two long and six shorter sides. The vaulting indicates it is really an irregular decagon. It is 15 m (49 feet) long, 11.3 m (37 feet) wide and 7 m (23 feet) high. It has a ten-celled roof vaulted from a central pillar with a decagonal base. The wall is bordered with 49 richly ornamented arcades having head sculptures above stone benches for seating many. A single, central column from which the vaulting spreads outwards is like Wells, Lincoln and Westminster Abbey. 

Wells chapter house

Lichfield’s chapterhouse is unique by having two similar storeys.[1] The central pillar continues upwards through the upper floor which is very similar to the ground level. The upper room was probably originally dedicated to be a library and treasury, perhaps also a sacristy; but is now the cathedral library.

                                                                      Medieval floor of the upstairs library.

Plan of Chapterhouse. Despite similarities to other chapterhouses its architecture is unique.[2] Its shape might have been the model for the Lady Chapel.[3]

 

The chapterhouse was used for meetings called ‘chapters’ for conducting cathedral business.[4] The early history of the Lichfield chapter was turbulent and it centred on its link with the monastery at Coventry. When the see was transferred to Chester and then Coventry, Lichfield lost status and self-government. It especially lost its sole right to elect a bishop. The monks of Coventry denied the canons any right of representation and in 1149 Walter Durdent became the bishop despite objections to the Papal Court by the chapters of Lichfield and Chester.[5] Lichfield spurned the new bishop in 1183. This conflict continued until 1228 when Pope Gregory IX decreed all future elections should be made jointly. The canons and monks should meet alternately; the first to occur at Coventry with both chapters sitting together and the next time at Lichfield; this continued for around a hundred years. A further refinement was added in 1255 when it was agreed that at future elections the two chapters should be represented in equal number. The agreement meant Lichfield needed a chapterhouse large enough to accommodate both chapters. In 1295, the monks of Coventry and the dean and canons of Lichfield assembled in the chapterhouse to unanimously elect Walter Langton as bishop.[6]

 

Chapterhouse with alarmed cabinets for St Chad’s Gospels and the Lichfield Angel.

 

                                    Chapterhouse vaulting.

  A chapterhouse was mentioned in the statutes of Bishops Nonant (strictly those of the Dean) and Pattishall and it is thought it stood in the angle between the north transept and the nave,[7] but the evidence is thin. There are other possible locations. The new chapterhouse was built in the 1240s.[8] The master-mason was Thomas the Elder. In 1244, the chapter was granted forty oaks from the bishop's woods, presumably for this purpose. The original plan might have had the entrance in the north transept, but was abandoned with a door cut through the north wall of the choir aisle.[9] It was dedicated in 1249 and was the fourth in line of 12–14 chapterhouses started between 1220 and 1240.[10]

An archaeological investigation of the floor in 2011 found three burials. Parts of two skeletons aligned east-west, thought to have been wrapped with shrouds, appeared to be under the chapterhouse foundation and therefore within a pre-1240s graveyard.[11] Fragments of tile were found and it was evident the original medieval tiled floor lay 0.1 to 0.15 m below the level of the c.1860s floor.

            Dean Heywood, 1457–92, paid for the glazing of the chapterhouse windows, then in 1819 some windows had heraldry and finally windows with narratives connected to Chad were begun in 1887.

Chapterhouse 1864 showing all windows with heraldic shields.[12] Note also the platform with table. 

 Vestibule from J. Britton (London: 1820).

Windows with heraldic shields and the story of Chad.

 

            During and immediately after the Civil War the chapterhouse was used for services since it was the only part of the cathedral with an intact roof. Excavation under the floor in 2011 found a possible dais that was post-Civil War.

 

            It is clear the chapterhouse has been used in many ways. At the start it was a way for Coventry monks and Lichfield canons to meet and conciliate and this continued until the Reformation. It then became a centre for the bishop to meet the cathedral clergy and lay chapter whenever he visited Lichfield. Occasionally it was used for court appearances. In and after the Civil War it was a place of worship. In recent times it has held exhibitions and today is where displays of treasures occur.

 

Various heads from around the wall. The last one is known as the ‘Boy Bishop’ and harks to the ritual of one day in the year being given to the least amongst the brethren. After election on 6 December, feast of St Nicholas, the boy dressed in full bishop's robes with mitre and crozier, and other boys dressed as priests, entered the town blessing the people. The day was usually held on the feast of Holy Innocents, 28 December. It was abolished in the Reformation.

 Capitol showing remains of red and green paint that once adorned the whole cathedral. 

 

   

  East end arches. Note the cat holding a kitten in its mouth (ringed) in the arch where the bishop or dean would have sat. This is sometimes referred to as the cat and mouse. From J. Britton (London:1820).

Drawing of cat and kitten from the chapterhouse capital. In Charles Knight, 'Old England', (London: 1845), 252.

[1] Norwich and Chichester cathedral’s chapter houses might have originally been two storeys. Wells is on two levels with a lower undercroft. The cathedral priory at Rochester, Beverley and Westminster have two levels, but each level is different in architecture.

[2] H. E. Savage, The Chapter House, Unpub. paper in Cathedral Library. (1919), 19.

[3] Ibid. 20.

[4] Originally called a chapterhouse because every day, a chapter from the Rule of St Benedict would be read out to the monastic community. 

[5] H. E. Savage (1919),15. When Bishop Durdent came to be installed at Lichfield, the chapter closed the Close gates and refused him entry. Savage gave a full account of the friction between the two cathedrals.

[6] J. Jackson, History of the City and Cathedral of Lichfield. (London: 1805), 76.

[7] H. E. Savage (1919),19.

[8] R. Willis, ‘On foundations of early buildings recently discovered in Lichfield Cathedral'. The Archaeological Journal, (1861), 18, 1--24. Also J. H. Harvey, English Medieval Architects (Art/architecture). Revised edition. (Stroud: 1987). The dating is based on the architectural style.

[9] H. E. Savage (1919), 20.

[10] H. E. Savage (1919) 19.

[11] K. Blockley, Lichfield Chapter House 2011. Fabric report 664. Unpub. paper in Cathedral Library. (2011).

[12] Murray, Handbook to the cathedrals of England, (Oxford: 1864), 263–325.

Nave Part 1.

     An 1820 account described the nave as both beautiful and interesting.[1] It has no statues on the external wall, the pillars are solid, large and fluted, the triforium is decorated and the clerestory windows innovative. The roof is a superb example of intricate carpentry and plasterwork. The nave epitomises Gothic Decorated architecture.

     The nave dates from the time of Bishop Roger Meuland (or Mayland) and was presumably directed by Thomas Waleys (Wallace) master of the fabric in 1268, who had succeeded William Fitzthomas by this date. It was probably completed by 1285.[2] Meuland was a kinsman (cousin?) of King Henry III and no doubt facilitated the king’s interest and patronage in the building of the cathedral. It is recorded Meuland assigned ten marks to the fabric fund, but this must be only a small part of his support.

Original head sculpture at the end of the north nave aisle. Eleanor of Provence, young wife of King Henry III, (she was 12 and he 28 when they married) introduced a new type of wimple to England. This veil, usually of linen or lace, covered a pillbox cap which meant the face was now central. Is this Eleanor?

Nave on a perch gridding of 16.5 feet.

     It has eight bays and an aisle on the north side and another on the south side. The two westerly bays are slightly wider to accommodate the two western towers and originally would have been a vestibule or atrium around the middle door. The nave and choir have the same number of pier arches and are of similar length. The total width of the nave (21 m or 69 feet) is also about equal to half its length.[3] The layout is mostly on a 16.5 feet (5.029 m) grid, a conventional perch or rod length.

  

Plan of nave

    The three levels have a harmonious ratio of close to 2:1:1, also seen at Westminster Abbey and Beverley Minster. That means the ground storey occupies one-half of the total height.[4] It was said to show “smooth fluidity of upward movement”.

 

Nave wall showing general ratio of elements. The original lengths were likely to be a rod or perch, but that is difficult to prove with changes to the floor level and roof.

 The complex rib vault is modelled on Lincoln Cathedral, but with the transverse rib omitted and a ridge rib made to extend the whole length of the nave.[5] The eye follows this line down the cathedral and gives a sense of length, hiding a comparatively short cathedral. There are extra tierceron ribs like those above Lincoln nave constructed c. 1235. The same design was repeated in the nave at Westminster Abbey.

 

Side of nave and roof vaulting showing 6 ribs in each bay. Choir has 7. The current vaulting in wood closely followed the previous roof in stone. The main feature is the prominent longitudinal ridge rib with conspicuous bosses. Unusually, there are no transverse ribs meaning the vaulting is like a “spreading cluster of arcs” This lack of a transverse rib and instead having a short decorative rib makes the nave roof very different from the choir and transept roof.

 

 Comparison of the nave vaulting with the choir vaulting

         

Perhaps, the most remarkable feature of the nave is the line of exceptionally tall spherical-triangular windows in the clerestory. Each window contains trefoil cusped circles of bar tracery. The windows are modelled on those from Westminster Abbey (Henry III?) and have a resemblance to the window openings in the north transept at Hereford Cathedral.

 Clerestory window.

  In 1788, roof bays 2 to 6 consisting of stone and lead were removed and replaced with wood, plaster and slate. It meant the weight of the roof on the nave walls was one-twentieth the weight of the roof (500 tons estimated) added after the Civil War. The heavy roof had caused cracks in the nave walls and pushed both of them outwards by 13–14 inches. The alternative of rebuilding and strengthening the clerestory walls was considered too expensive and dangerous. Scott in the 1850s refused to alter the roof or change the clerestory and instead opted to increase the height of the side aisles to where they were before the Civil War.

 

South side of the nave c. 1720 showing the aisle and nave roof before alterations. The nave roof was reduced in height and the aisle roof was raised.

Crossing tower showing lines where previous roofs were attached.

Cinquefoil decoration – what is it?

Above all the columns and below the triforium on the inside wall of the nave is a 5-fold wall decoration. Five has meant speculation it represents the five wounds of Christ or the five saints who received stigmata, but to repeat this along the nave is incongruous. 

Cinquefoils  on southwest tower and above southwest door

Cinquefoil decoration nave.

   

 

 Rosa gallica, a five petalled rose with a strong scent.

                                  

 

An early drawing of Rosa gallica. Notice the petals are surrounded with an outline like the wall decoration.

    Here is another explanation. The nave was built in the time of King Henry III and he introduced architectural features borrowed from his other cathedrals. His wife was Eleanor from Provence where a particular kind of rose, Rosa gallica, was grown. The red rose was grown for the production of rose flavoured jam and for use as a medicine; said to cure many ailments. It became known as the ‘Apothecary’s Rose’. Eleanor is thought to have brought it to England and her second son adopted it as his badge. The rose was then widely used by following kings and eventually became the ‘Rose of England’. Edward I turned it into the golden rose. Is the decoration an outline of the badge of Eleanor and Henry?

    This plausible explanation is flawed because it does not explain the trefoil and quatrefoil decoration, unless these too were outlines of three petalled and four petalled flowers. It fits with the cinquefoil decoration in Lincoln cathedral in the Angel Choir because this extension to the cathedral was arranged by Henry III, started 1255 and dedicated 1280. It does not explain the quatrefoil and trefoil in the chapter house at Southwell Cathedral started 1288.

South aisle by the Angel Choir in Lincoln Cathedral showing cinquefoil at the top and quatrefoil and trefoil at the bottom.

 

Quatrefoil and trefoil in the Chapter House at Southwell Cathedral.

    Similarities

Architects have found similarities with the nave structure and those at other cathedrals, but it does not immediately follow the masons were copying. For example, Lincoln also has small capitals with foliate decoration, trefoil decoration in the spandrels (Angel Choir), double arched openings in the triforium, similar sculptures in the nave arcades (only in the east end of the south aisle at Lichfield) and the same vaulting arrangement in the roof.  Westminster has small, spherical-triangular windows and the same vaulting in the aisles. Wells has the same column shafts. 

Base of nave columns in Wells cathedral 

Southwell has similar blind arcading and decoration in their chapter house. It is unclear whether masons had detailed drawings to transfer, but it is more likely they knew of these innovative arrangements and wanted to improve on them. These buildings have a similar date of construction and there could have been discussion in the guilds. The kings, especially Henry III, would have wanted to disseminate the best ideas. Despite these correspondences it would be likely those constructing Lichfield would want to emulate elsewhere; assuming they had the finance to achieve innovation.

[1] J. Britton, The history and antiquities of the See and cathedral church of Lichfield. (London: 1820), 40.

[2] M. W. Greenslade and R. B. Pugh (eds.) 'House of secular canons - Lichfield cathedral: To the Reformation', in A History of the County of Stafford: Volume 3, (London, 1970), 140–166.

[3] R. Willis, ‘On foundations of early buildings recently discovered in Lichfield Cathedral’. The Archaeological Journal, (1861), 18, 1–24.

[4] P. Brieger, The Oxford History of English Art (1216–1307), (Oxford: 1957), 185.

[5] Ibid, 186.

Nave. Part 2 arcades.

     The nave aisles are 55 m (180 feet) long and their outer walls have blind arcading, much restored in 1854. From the Civil War destruction and restoration, the nave arcades were almost wholly plaster. G. Gilbert Scott replaced them with stone in a style that he thought was appropriate. Almost all the upper parts of each arcade have been refurbished, though some masonry deemed reasonable was left untouched. Why have arcades? The obvious answer is to have lavish decoration which shows off the importance of the church and the richness of the cathedral. The less obvious answer is it increases the sense of depth, especially in a comparatively short and narrow cathedral like Lichfield. Each arcade imitates a door into another part of the cathedral. The large open arcades enables the viewer to see beyond and the blind arcades deceives into thinking there is more beyond the impression of a closed door. The visitor often asks, 'what was in the arcade'?  

Arcade from east end of  south aisle compared with arcade from east end of north aisle. The south side arcades show more decoration.

 

Arcade from bay 6 on south side considered to be original and head from east end of south aisle considered original.

 

The arcades and stonework above are far more decorated on the south side compared with the north side. The arcades are generally similar to those in the Chapter House and those in Southwell Minster. Some of the decoration is of the highest quality, especially with the hollowing of the centres of capitals.

Capitols showing precise undercutting and oak leaf foliage.

 There is sculpture in the spandrels of alternating bays (1, 3, 5) along the south aisle. Why did the mason not complete every bay? Bay one appears to have two birds with prominent claws, bay three has smiling winged ape-like beasts and bay 5 has winged, clawed, smiling beasts with bared teeth.  

 

Spandrels of bays 1, 3 and 5 on the south side.

 In bays 3 and 5 in the south aisle wall are two semi-effigies which have defied explanation. Why display only the head and feet invites speculation. Britton thought they represented two old canons of the church and are the same age as the nave.[1] He suggested the intermediate parts are hidden within the wall, but that does not explain why?

 

Semi-effigies.

     A review of ‘semi-effigial monuments’ found more appeared in churches in eastern England and certain parts of Wales and they were 13th or 14th-century.[2] No explanation is given, but those viewed from above often had some cross symbolism in the missing middle. Knights might have their armorial heraldry. Pursuing  this observation suggests something was displayed on the wall between the head and feet, now replaced by a memorial stone.

 

Selection of sculptured heads; most must be Victorian and crafted by the stonemason.

 Over 700 sculptured heads have been counted inside and outside of the cathedral, though it is unknown how many were present at the time of construction. This is the wonder of the cathedral.

[1] J. Britton, The history and antiquities of the See and cathedral church of Lichfield.( London: 1820), 46.

[2]  C. Boutell, Christian Monuments in England and Wales. An Historical and Descriptive Sketch of the Various Classes of Sepulchral Monuments which Have Been in Use in this Country from about the Era of the Norman Conquest to the Time of Edward the Fourth. (London: 1854). Lichfield is on p155–6.

 

Cathedral Piped Organs

      It is thought the first piped organs appeared in European churches in the late 10th century and were common in cathedrals in England by the end of the 13th century.          

     The earliest mention of a cathedral organ in Lichfield is in 1482 when a ‘great organ’ was placed on the choir screen in the cathedral.[1] A fee to an organist and bellows-blower was recorded in the 1580s.[2] Visitors in 1634 noted the organs and voices were deep and sweet, but in 1635 two organs were described as  ‘much defective’ and in need of repair. It was suggested the organs should be combined to make one chair-organ. A new organ with 12 stops was ordered in 1636,[3] but was destroyed soon after in the Civil War. The wooden pipes were burned.[4]

            With the post-war restoration of the cathedral a new organ was installed.[5] An organ was used in 1663 since an inquiry asked what the organist played. It is thought this is the chamber organ that currently resides in the south transept. A restoration showed only the 12 lowest pipes were original. In 1677 a little organ was repaired. 

Chamber Organ known as the ‘wardrobe’.

Chamber organ before restoration

             In 1732, the organ was said to be out of repair. In 1740, the Warwick-based German organ builder Thomas Schwarbrick provided Lichfield with a new or fully restored main organ, which survived until 1789.

            In 1789, James Wyatt removed the stone screen between the choir and the Lady Chapel and used the stone to build a screen between the crossing and the choir. A new organ[6] was placed on top of the stone wall and was first played in November 1790.. It occupied the first choir bay, an estimated area of 9 m x 6 m (30 feet wide and 20 feet long).[7] Access to the loft was by a staircase built into the stone screen. At least 12 canopies from the old high altar reredos were incorporated into the stone screen. A glazed screen was then added in 1801[8] to the back of the organ case which reached upwards to the roof. The organist was now separated from the nave by a window. All this was part of draught-proofing an inner church.

 

Part of a plate showing the stone wall, organ and glass screen. From Britton, 1820.[9]

             With Scott’s restoration of the cathedral the stone wall and organ were taken down in 1858. A new organ[10] was bought by Josiah Spode[11] and it was played in 1861. The new organ, the foundation of the current organ, was innovative for its size and having an independent pedal chorus.[12] The organ was located in St Stephen’s Chapel in the north transept.[13]

Organ in St Stephen's Chapel

    In 1884, the organ[14] was enlarged and rebuilt. It was given tubular pneumatic action, adding a Solo division, much of the pipework was replaced and the console moved into the north choir aisle, thereby improving the siting of the organist.[15]

In 1907–8, the organ was placed in a loft above the north choir aisle and a new console was added.[16] Further rebuilding occurred in 1974 such that it now had 66 speaking stops and 4064 pipes.[17] The instrument’s tonal palette was broadened.

Rebuild in 2000[18] saw the addition of the nave organ (almost 1000 new pipes) so that it now had 82 speaking stops and 5038 pipes. The nave section can be used independently of the choir section. After much debate, the organ was left at its original Old Philharmonic pitch, meaning that it sounds very sharp against modern-day concert pitch. A past organist wrote the organ is not the most famous in the country, but it is one of the most delightful of English organs to play and to hear.[19]

The cathedral also owns an electronic organ with fixed speakers and a moveable console.

Notable organists of Lichfield Cathedral include the 17th-century composer Michael East and the musical educator and choral conductor William Henry Harris who conducted at the coronations of both George VI and Elizabeth II. 

[1] Presented by Dean Haywood. See Lichfield Cathedral Library MS. Lichfield 4, f. 31. Also M. Greenslade, 'Lichfield: The Cathedral'. In: A history of the County of Stafford: Volume 14, Lichfield.. (London: 1990) 47--57, note 129.

[2] M. W. Greenslade and R. B. Pugh (eds.) 'House of secular canons - Lichfield cathedral: From the Reformation to the 20th century’, in A History of the County of Stafford: Volume 3, (London, 1970), 166–199.

[3] Ordered from Robert Dallam.

[4] J. Jackson, History of the City and Cathedral of Lichfield. (London: 1805), 204. There is mention of two organs lost in the Civil War, 83.

[5] It has been written the organ was built by Bernhard Schmidt but restoration showed parts predate his workshop. He probably enlarged the organ in 1680. It has three stops.

[6] Built by Samuel Green. The organ case was designed by James Wyatt in a Gothic style.

[7] R. Prentis, A view from the old organ lofts. Unpub. paper in the cathedral library.

[8] T. Harwood, The history and antiquities of the church and city of Lichfield. (London: 1806), 90, stated this was done in 1801.

[9] J. Britton, The history and antiquities of the See and cathedral church of Lichfield.( London: 1820), Plate 8.

[10] Built by George Holdich. It was called ‘Holdich’s Magnum Opus’.

[11] He also paid for the old organ and placed this in Armitage church, where he was the organist.

[12] M. Rawles, The pipe-organs of Lichfield Cathedral: a very brief history. (2015). From a website at www.cathedralchoir.org.uk no longer accessible, but this article can still be downloaded.

[13] Which meant communication between the organist and the choir was not easy.

[14] Work done by William Hill and Sons.

[15] See note 11.

[16] This necessitated removing a window.

[17] Work done by Hill, Norman and Beard under the direction of Richard Greening.

[18] By Harrison and Harrison of Durham.

[19] R. Greening, The Organs of Lichfield Cathedral. (Lichfield: 1974). A publication of the Dean and Chapter of the Cathedral.