Penitence pre-Reformation

Summary.  From the 11th-century confession and penance became an essential, almost obsessive, sacrament of the church. It massively influenced late medieval religious life.

     Although confessions and penance were mentioned in the 6th-century Celtic church they were not widely recognised as essential during the first millennium. The Eucharist was deemed to provide pardon for sins. From the 11th-century they gradually became an essential, almost obsessive, sacrament of the church. The Fourth Lateran Council, 1215, laid down everyone above the age of 12 years for girls and women and 14 for boys and men were expected to give confession at least once a year[1] and customarily during Lent. From Ash Wednesday, following Shrove Tuesday, the time of self-reflection known as Shrovetide marked when people had to ‘shrove’ themselves or go to confession. It was 40 days of penitence and reflected Christ’s fasting and temptation in the wilderness. Any previous penitents in the congregation were taken to the door of the church after the mass and blessing of ashes on Ash Wednesday, and could not return until Maundy Thursday before Good Friday. This expulsion was called ‘public.’[2] ‘Public penance’ continued until Reformation in some areas, but in others it was ignored or simply threatened. It is unclear how many churches, including Lichfield, followed this practice. Church courts dealt with serious cases and the public penance could be in a public space or involve custody.

           Confession, or penitencia, usually occurred after the early morning mass and before the priest had his midday meal (but not on Sundays). In churches with a large congregation the confession had to be timed to a particular day (precise time was unknown). The nobility and those with status often had an early choice for their appointed day. Some avoiders sought confession with a monk or friar (often begging Dominicans or Franciscans), or an anchorite if one was attached to a church, or even to a neighbouring parish priest, though this was unacceptable or even forbidden. Evasion was a punishable offence and consequently confession was almost universally observed. In a large cathedral like Lichfield, chantry priests might have helped the canons to hear all the confessions during the Lenten period. It would have had to serve people from neighbouring villages without easy access to a priest. In 1523, it was decided a curate should hear confessions for those living in the Close, receiving 2d. from each servant at Easter. In 1530, with fear of the plague returning it was decided the confessions of all servants and laymen living within the Close were to be heard in one of the chapels in the cathedral by the Vicar of St. Mary's.

           Confession had to occur in a part of the cathedral which was visible to others. There was no discussion behind a screen, especially for women. There might have been a ‘shriving pew.’ It would be away from people waiting to give confession, but still in their sight. For the cathedral this might have been at the far east end of the nave. The confesser and priest could sit sideways to each other, or across a table. The priest might have worn a hood.

          Confession began by the individual saying ‘Bless you’ and the priest replying ‘The Lord be with you.’ The priest then listed sins[3] the confesser might have committed. It included asking if the penitent understood The Creed, if they believed in the transubstantiation of the bread and wine, if they knew the ten commandments, had they ever blasphemed, or broken the Sabbath, not honoured their parents, engaged in witchcraft or theft, or failed to pay a loan, or coveted anything. It continued with the seven deadly sins[4] and whether they had undertaken the seven works of mercy[5] including giving to the poor. Parents were questioned on how they had taught their children. All were asked how they had respected the church and its environment. Any confession was followed by questions of when, where, who was affected, how often was it done, and what was the outcome. The penitent had to then show remorse and regret. The penance given by the priest had to fit the gravity of the sin and clearly each priest had their preferred way of sentencing penance. It is unclear how the priest learned if the penitent had conformed. There are cases known where the priest completed the penance, as a proxy, for an inadequate penitent.[6]

           A series of manuals were prepared for the diocese of Coventry and Lichfield to help the priest learn of everything to be confessed. The priest had to enquire ‘who, what, where, with whose help, why, in what way and when was the sin committed. The statute did not lay down specific penances for particular sins, but the penances took the form of having to fast, repeat prayers and give alms, and stated it was best when all three were given.[7] Penances included kneeling and kissing the ground,[8] giving alms, praying regularly, receiving biblical instruction, saying five Pater Nosters (Lord’s Prayer) and five Aves with the Credo, processing around the church without shoes to be seen by all, and fasting on set days for sometimes lengthy periods. At all times calling on God for mercy. Harsher penances included having to go on a pilgrimage or for knights to have to go on a crusade. The most contentious was the selling of indulgences in which penances were reduced. The priest would pray for the penitent and later in the medieval period was given the power to absolve the sinner. It was forbidden for the confesser to pay the priest, but this undoubtedly occurred, even if it was delayed until Easter. The priest learned much from the confessions and although they could not reveal the details (the seal of confession), some wrote about the problems and difficulties faced by their congregation.[9] It must have been a learning experience for young priests.

          Reformation terminated the penitentiary church and confession now became elective. People confessed at least part of their sins by regular statements of confession, said by the congregation together and sometimes quietly, during worship.

 If confession improved physical and mental wellbeing,[10] it would be interesting to know if mental issues increased after Reformation. The flipside is intensive questioning must have instilled feelings of guilt and, perhaps, wellbeing improved post-Reformation. Issues resulting from penance can be found in Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, especially in the Parson's Tale.

Some historians[11] have re-evaluated late medieval confession and concluded it had a massively influential role in late medieval religious life. Written guides to confession existed prior to the 13th-century and then the number of guides increased in response to the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215.[12] These guides showed how to obtain the maximum benefits from the sacrament. There were two kinds, those addressed to the faithful, so that they could prepare a good confession, and those addressed to the priests, who had to make sure that no sins were left unmentioned and the confession was thorough. Manuals were written both in Latin and in the vernacular.

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[1] The Council’s Canon 21, Omnis utriusque sexus, mandated annual confession for every adult, regardless of gender or estate.

[2] See Orme, N. Going to church in Medieval England, (New Haven and London: 2022), 261–274 for which most of this post depends. From the 13th-century the sins could include adultery, incest, cohabiting with a priest, usury, sorcery, perjury, false witness and the exposure of babies (rejecting a new-born and exposing it so that someone might adopt). See also M. E. Cornett, The form of confession a later Medieval genre for examining conscience. A Ph.D. Thesis for the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 2011.

[3] Sin was seen as a disease of the soul and had to be cured by Easter.

[4] pride, wrath, envy, lust, sloth, avarice, and gluttony. Sometimes an eighth, dejection, was added.

[5] To feed the hungry, give water to the thirsty, clothe the naked, shelter the homeless, visit the sick, visit the imprisoned, or ransom the captive and to bury the dead. The list is from Matthew 25.  

[6] G. Fort, ‘Penitents and Their Proxies: Penance for Others in Early Medieval Europe,’ Church History, (2017), 86, 1.

[7] F. M. Powicke and C. R. Cheney eds. ‘Councils and Synods with other documents relating to the English Church, Volume II. 1205–1313, (Oxford: 1964), I, 224–6.

[8] Henry II was forced to do public penance on his knees for his part in the murder of Thomas Becket,

[9] A. Murray, Counselling in Medieval Confession, In Conscience and Authority in the Medieval Church, Chapter 3, (Oxford: 2013), 87–103.

[10] K. Harvey, Confession as therapy in the Middle Ages, see online https://wellcomecollection.org/articles/WovlRioAAHW6Xfqn

[11] J. Bossy, Christianity in the West 1400-1700 (Oxford: 1985) and T. Tentler, Sin and Confession on the Eve of the Reformation (Princeton: 1977).

[12] J. Garrison, Handbooks for Confessors, Online Oxford Bibliographies, (2017), 27 June. Also J. T. McNeill and H. M. Gamer, eds. Medieval Handbooks of Penance (New York: 1990).