Christians at the sacred site of Lichfield’s three cathedrals have not observed and worshipped God in the same way over its 1357 years. Religious practice has changed over time and usually with changes in the cathedral building. From early times priests had to facilitate worship and organise a welcoming church, but how this was done has varied nationally and locally. This gave different ages of Christian practice alongside an evolution in church building. The problem is to define what were the prominent factors deciding a particular age and custom of worship. The following is an attempt to describe 7 possibly distinct ages.
1. The age of saints.
In 7th-century in Britain and
Ireland faith leaders built local churches and then travelled distances to
build new churches, forming new faith communities and eventually being revered
as saints. Often these saints were of noble birth, sometimes the youngest sons
and daughters of kings.[1]
Sainthood, holiness and perfection were decided by the local community and
their work memorialised with folklore. Consequently, their place of burial,
often in a dedicated shrine building, became sacred. Bishop-saints often
visited Rome and made detours to continental monasteries. Those following the
Roman tradition of worship often followed Martin, the Hungarian bishop of
Tours, 316 or 336‑397, and those of a Celtic persuasion knew all about Patrick
in Ireland, c. 432 and Columba (Colm Cille), 521‑597, at Iona. In time,
many more saints became role models and their place of burial became holy sites.
Chad was most
likely from a noble family in Yorkshire, became mentored by royalty, travelled
to Ireland, was admired for his piety and humility, became a bishop in
Northumbria and eventually the fifth bishop of Mercia.[2] He
was a Celtic missionary, who became a Roman bishop, and seen as an important
saint known through Bede’s history book written in 731.[3]
His grave within a shrine tower was discovered in 2003.[4]
His churches, St Peters and St Marys, would have been simple and with little
decoration. The cathedral-church of his bishop elder brother, Cedd, is still
standing at Bradwell-on-Sea, Essex, and must be a good likeness of his church
at Lichfield.
Exterior and
interior of Cedd’s chapel of St Peter on the Wall, Bradwell-on-Sea, Essex. It
was built on the edge of a Roman shore site south of the river Blackwater. Chad’s
church might have had materials purloined from the Roman site of Letocetum,
Wall.
Chad’s shrine appears to be a
simple 7m x 7m building with thick walls suggesting a tower appearance. The
roof could have been shingles from a Roman site. In the age of saints, a
simplicity seems to be the architectural style.
At some time in the late 7th or early 8th-century the simple buildings at Lichfield are thought to have a linear layout resembling the layout at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem. Such a sacred landscape has been identified at Iona, northwest Scotland, possibly at Lindisfarne, northeast Northumbria and several centres on the continent. Both a saint and their church-shrine were now venerated. Early pilgrims were visiting a numinous site resembling their idea of the site where Christ’s tomb lay. The sacred layout is thought to have existed for several decades.[5]
2. The age of procession and status in Anglo-Saxon times.
In the late 7th and early 8th-centuries churches began
to have a long nave and at the east end was added an extension in the form of
an apse. This allowed priests and nobility to process the length of the church
and occupy areas assigned to them within the apse. Choirs and nobility sat in
the east end of the church often separated from the clergy by three arches and
others were kept to the west end of the nave. Patrons used the church to show
off their status and to join priests and make a small journey from the outside
to the cross. There is some evidence the second cathedral, now only a
foundation under the choir and presbytery, was Early Medieval (Anglo-Saxon) and
showed this arrangement.[6]
Brixworth Church, Northamptonshire and the choir-apse foundation revealed under the cathedral in 1854. Both were associated with King Offa of Mercia.
Kings were buried outside the church walls and bishops
began to be buried in a porticus chamber on the side of the nave. Over time all
the high-status individuals wanted burial near the high altar.
By 800, there were 17 cathedrals with
bishops and 2-300 monasteries.[7]
At least 50 monasteries catered for women, with most also having men in a
‘double house’. Many churches became the domain of a rich sponsor and the
church reflected their status. By the 9th-century churches could be connected
or very close to the manor.
By the late-8th and 9th-century towers were added
usually at the west end and then increasingly over the high altar. There can be
only one purpose for towers and that was to store something valuable and give
protection from thieves. By the late Saxon period turriform or tower churches
appeared and these gave protection to priests from marauding plunderers.
Evolution of the shape of a church in the first millennia. ‘A’ is a roundhouse, oratory or beehive and could be made from earth, timber and wattle or stone. ‘B’ is the simple longhouse made from timber and brush. Altar was against the wall. ‘C’ and ‘D’ are stone rectangular buildings with an apse or a square chancel. An apse the same width as the nave could be as early as 8th century. Many see the square chancel as being later in time. Square chancels are seen more in early northern churches and apses are commoner in early southern churches. It has been suggested the altar table had a space behind for the clergy when it Romanised. ‘E’ has the feature of a separate anteroom or narthex for those who were not confirmed, or it was possibly dividing women from the men. The altar table is on the diameter of the apse circle. At the early churches of Reculver and Winchester the altar could have been at the end of the nave.‘F’ is cruciform in shape with side chapels or porches (porticus). Also, it had a tower either at the west end or over the chancel. ‘G’ is a tower church with perhaps a baptistery. ‘H’ is the very late Saxon church with aisles, side Chapter house, buttresses and sometimes a crypt. There could be three towers, presumably showing the trinity. Side chapels might contain the remains of high-status individuals so they were buried close to the altar, but not part of the nave.
3. The age of pilgrimage with monumental building in Norman times.
There is no evidence this new Norman architecture occurred in Lichfield;
the church was not a power-base for the conquerors.[8]
Victorian writers romanticised the idea of construction of a formidable Norman
church, but this conflicts with historical and archaeological evidence. Two
bishops left Lichfield for another see and Lichfield was marginalised for 2
centuries. Despite this the cult of Chad with attendant pilgrimage kept the
downgraded cathedral important in Staffordshire. Saving the souls of pilgrims,
redeeming penitents and offering prayers in diverse chantry chapels became the
mainstay of worship.[9]
It is plausible this form of worship saved the cathedral-church from demise. There
is some evidence services continued in Early Medieval style throughout the
Norman period. Dozens of texts of English sermons continued to be replicated in
English throughout the 11th and 12th-centuries.[10]
This age at Lichfield is the least understood, but the general view was there
was no monumental build by the Normans, but there was continuing worship and pilgrimage,
albeit on a local level.
For the origin, characteristics and features of Gothic building at Lichfield see the post, ‘Gothic cathedral’. The underlying questions is why build this way? A number of reasons have been conjectured and probably all contain some truth. The first reason was many tall lancet windows let in extra light and worship could now be seen in a way not possible before. Some have linked this with the fourth Lateran Council, 1215, in which many theological changes were made to church organisation including infallibly defining transubstantiation as the centre of the Eucharist. This rite was now paramount and easier to watch. The light enhanced the chancel which was extended, squared off, had an ambulatory and given sedilia for more priests to sit close to the altar. A piscina (for washing the sacred vessels) and a cupboard or aumbry (for storing the vessels) appeared.
A second reason was it encouraged worshippers to look upwards to
heaven. Height was not the greatest feature of early Gothic, but it became the
defining feature of improved Gothic. All the points and pinnacles encouraged
this raising of the eyes. Three spires possibly reminded all of the Trinity, or
prosaically it is possible three towers inspired the construction of three
spires. Bosses on the ceiling showed
significant biblical events. Stained glass, placed high up, gave full account
of favourite biblical stories. Polished stone subliminally stated a vision of
heaven. The elevated external gargoyles scared away evil and made the cathedral
a safe space. Internal grotesques reminded all of the diversity of nature.
Statues looking down on the parishioners had natural poses and gestures, full
of tender feeling and strong emotion. Column capitals showed beautiful
arrangements of leaves, reminiscent of the tree of life (Genesis 2 v9).
A third explanation was it expressed the hierarchy of the church. The
Angevin kings and bishops (often related) were frequently in tandem and all
wanted to own a magnificent house of God, especially for their own glory or for
an ancestor’s memory. Statues and sculptured heads showed who mattered. The
cathedral had a Consistory Court and a Chapter House to enforce their rules and
law. Under-crofts could hold felons for a short time. All behaviours were being
determined by biblical explication and the church became an autonomous,
self-regulated community with its own law code. Everyone was reminded to live a
good, Christian life or sin would be punishable. For the ordinary town citizen
this meant frequent prayer, attendance at church and taking Communion at
Easter.[11]
Now the church was built to accommodate various classes and had worship with
occasional sung accompaniment. Everything was designed to awe and show the
power of God.
Sedilia
within the current sanctuary. Originally it was part of the reredos at the east
end of the cathedral in the Lady Chapel in the 17th-century. It was much
repaired by Scott and placed on the side of the high altar. It is neo-Gothic
and shows a multitude of pinnacles and points.
5.
The age
of reformation
In March 1787, work began under James Wyatt to increase the size of the
choir area and make it more comfortable for clergy, choristers, and
congregation. Whenever, there was a sermon on the second Sunday in the month
all the listeners in the choir stalls had to move to the nave where the pulpit
was positioned. They joined parishioners from the town; many having attended
worship in their own churches.[17]
The seating in the choir area was then extended into the Lady Chapel, which
meant the removal of a stone screen. Wyatt plastered in between the arches of
the choir and presbytery, removed statues and now formed a long inner church
from the crossing-choir screen of stone and glass to the lady chapel altar. The
inner church was unfurnished, long, dark and gloomy and this was understood to
give a better sense of God. It was also draught-proof. Wyatt treated the
cathedral as an artistic whole by unifying the separate areas into one space
and uncluttering to give emphasis on the monumental space and not the
monuments. His critics mourned the loss of historical artefacts, such as
medieval chapels, tombs, statues and rood screens. It was a return to
architectural purification[18]
and a simpler form of worship.
Choir
looking westwards to crossing-choir screen, 1820, from Britton.
This was also the age of dissent and many turned to worship in
non-conformist churches. Consequently, worship in the cathedral became the
domain of clergy, lay-preachers and sponsors. There were few ordinary folks
attending. More attended St Marys in the market square.
7.
Age of
Neo-Gothic Revival and inclusivity.
Major disruptions
Christian worship
has been disrupted on at least 4 big occasions.
1.
The
Vikings came and almost certainly plundered the cathedral early in 875.[20]
Bishop Eadberht from this date is not mentioned and the next bishop, Wulfred,
is named 8 years later. The Gospels and the Staffordshire Hoard archive were
probably removed before the incursion.
2.
Bishops
do not appear to be attending the cathedral in the 12th-century, though canons
are mentioned. There are indications the cathedral was poor in state and
lacking funds. Early in the 13th-century the current, third cathedral was built
and worship within a small area, thought to be the three western bays of the
choir, must have been challenging.[21]
Plague and famine affected the Close.
3.
Reformation,
iconoclasm and the destruction of a shrine changed worship, 1530-60.
4.
Attendance
during the Civil War, 1643‑6, must have been minimal and absent during the
three sieges.[22]
After destruction of the cathedral there is mention of worship in the Chapter
House since it was the only area with an intact roof. Worship fully began after
the rebuilding of the cathedral; Bishop Hacket led the re-consecration on
December 24 1669.[23]
This record of
continuity is remarkable when considering what happened to other cathedrals. It
is testimony of the site being seen always as sacred and this must largely
depend on the cult of Chad, his relics when present (lost to the cathedral from
c. 1541) and the appeal of pilgrimage (absent from 1538‑1860).
[1]
R. Sharp, Drawn to the Light. A history of a dark time. (Studley: 2018),
86.
[2]
See the post, ‘St Chad. Biography fact and fiction.’ Chad “in addition to all
his merits of temperance, humility, zeal in teaching, prayers and voluntary
poverty he was greatly filled with the fear of the Lord and mindful of his last
end in all he did.”
[3]
. McClure and R. Collins, Bede. The Ecclesiastical history of the English
People, (Oxford, 2008). Book IV, Ch.
3, 174. The edition of McClure and Collins is based on the translation by
Bertram Colgrave for the Oxford Medieval Texts first published in 1969. Bede
listed this work as Historiam ecclesiasticam nostræ insulæ ac gentis in libris
V, which translates to The ecclesiastical history of our island and nation in
five books.
[4]
See the posts, ‘Chad’s relics’ and ‘Two churches in 672 and a shrine’.
[5]
See the post, ‘A sacred landscape for the first cathedral’.
[6]
See the posts, ‘The incomparable apse of the second cathedral’, ‘An
extraordinary apse’ and ‘Why the second cathedral must be Anglo-Saxon
(Englisc).’
[7]
N. Orme, Medieval Schools’, (New Haven and London: 2006), 18.
[8]
See the post, ‘There is no historical evidence for a Norman second cathedral.’
Also ‘Second cathedral has a short-perch layout. It is Early Medieval.’
[9]
See the post, ‘Chantries.’
[10]
J. Crick, ‘Conquests and Continuities’, In C. Breay and J. Story (eds.) Anglo-Saxon
Kingdoms. Art, Word, War. (London: 2018), 56.
[11]
In many rural areas pagan belief systems persisted. It is now thought in parts
of the country with few churches indifference to following religious practices was
more or less as common as today.
[12]
The Mass founded on a priest consecrating bread and wine to become the body and
blood of Christ through transubstantiation. The priest offered to God the same
sacrifice of Christ on the cross that provided atonement for the sins of
humanity. It also offered a prayer by which the living could help souls in
purgatory.
[13]
The changeover from Latin to English in services must have caused some turmoil.
A writer in 1554 remarked ‘who could twenty years ago say the Lord’s Prayer
(Pater Noster) in English.
[14]
The Matthew’s Bible was available by 1537 and Henry’s Great Bible in 1539. The
King ordered copies of the Great Bible to be placed in all churches; failure to
comply would result in a £2 fine.
[15]
H. E. Savage, The Cathedral and the Chapter 1530–1553. Unpub. articled in the
cathedral library, (1927), 11.
[16]
See the post, ‘Civil War damage and restoration. ‘
[17]
See the post, ‘James Wyatt's restoration, 1787-92.’
[18]
M. J. Lewis, The Gothic Revival, (London: 2002), 41.
[19]
See the post, ‘Victorian revival,’
[20]
See the post, ‘When the Vikings came.’
[21]
See the post, ‘Dating the cathedral.’
[22]
See the posts, ‘First Civil War siege of the Close, March 1643,’ ‘Second siege
7-21 April 1643,’ and ‘Third siege March 8 - July 16 1646.’
[23]
See the post, ‘Civil War damage and restoration.’
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