Victorian revival

Summary. The frame of the cathedral was rebuilt after the Civil War destruction, but much remained in a poor state for nearly two centuries. Clergy and architects directed a comprehensive repair undertaken in the second half of the 19^th-century. The dark, screened choir-presbytery became an open interior. Larger windows, underfloor heating, new statues, a new library, a high altar with reredos were added. A ‘Victorian Revival’ building accommodated high Anglican worship.

 

          In the late-18th and early-19th centuries cathedrals and churches were in an uncertain, frequently precarious state[1]. They were poorly lit, cold and often closed during the day. Yet many were wealthy having landed estates around the church usually owned by clergy. To some, priests appeared privileged, remote and of little relevance to the Church. It needed The Duties and Revenues Act of 1840[2] to carry out an extensive overhaul of cathedral organisation and finances. One consequence was now a dean and four residential canons constituted a reduced Cathedral Chapter. Funds were diverted, dioceses revised and extensive restoration undertaken. It was a comprehensive revision in funding, worship and church organisation.

 

          Like many cathedrals, by the late-18th to early 19th-century Lichfield Cathedral was in a moribund state. Reformation had stripped its wealth and the Civil War had wrecked it. Almost the whole interior, floor to ceiling, was covered in ‘uniform, dead, yellowish whitewash many coats thick’.[3] For two centuries the appearance of the inside of the cathedral had remained little changed[4] from the Parliamentary army despoliation and the subsequent minimal internal restoration.[5] There was very little in the transepts and, apart from the font up a corner, nothing in the nave. Services were held in an isolated choir; a dark, cold church within the outer cathedral. The choir aisles were unlit and never used. A heating flue passed down the middle of the choir, but it rarely worked. Any visitor would hear the worship, but not see it. The 1851 census of churches recorded the cathedral had 395 seats. Considerable stonework needed urgent repair. Much was in a shoddy state.

Plan of the cathedral, 1820.[6]

 

View of Lady Chapel, being used as the chancel, 1820. Note the absence of statues in the niches.

 

View of Choir, 1820, Note the lack of statues and wall decoration. When the plaster was removed cinque-foil decoration was revealed.

 

Queen Victoria and Prince Albert visited Lichfield and passed by the cathedral in 1843.

Drawing of the front of the cathedral on December 9 1843. From Illustrated London News

 In the 1851 religious census the cathedral had 395 seats for worshippers and an average of 200 attended the morning service and 210 in the afternoon. This was less than half the attendance of St Marys in the Market Square.

 

Between 1856 and 1894, extensive restoration of the cathedral was undertaken, initiated by Canon John Hutchinson, agreed by Deans Henry Howard and Edward Bickersteth and overseen by George Gilbert Scott,[7] his son John Oldrid Scott and grandson Giles Scott. The restoration was after much deliberation, argument, and consultation from many architects and clergy. Worship was made open to all, music improved and preaching enhanced with the opening of the Theological College in 1857. Visitors were welcomed. Canon G. H. Curteis preached a sermon in February 1860 on ‘Cathedral Restoration’ and claimed the cathedral was again a place where pilgrimage occurred. He said every modern appliance and the highest modern skill was being used to restore the cathedral’s ancient beauty. The extensive changes were recorded by Canon John Lonsdale.[8] He wrote in 1895 the cathedral had gone through a complete revolution so that the building would hardly be recognised from that which stood forty years previously.

 The restoration

            From 1856, workmen, around 20-30, laboriously chiselled off the whitewash (at Wells cathedral it was called the Great Scrape), removed considerable underlying plaster and began to repair much of the stonework. Brick flues carrying hot air were built under the whole floor. During this work historic foundations of the first two cathedrals were found and then surveyed and analysed; see the post ‘Why the second cathedral must be Early Medieval.’ Old tilework was discovered. New floors were laid. Woodwork was replaced. Almost all the windows were altered and new glass installed. Some windows had brick infill removed. New statues[9] were added both internally and on the west front and east end. After scraping the choir vaulted roof, bands of red, blue and green paint were uncovered. A minimal amount of new paintwork was added. A larger, modern organ was installed. A metal screen, designed by Scott, between the choir and crossing was much discussed and finally manufactured by Francis Skidmore of Coventry. Skidmore was asked, 1860, to make two large brass standards holding gas lights for the end of the choir and six more brass standards for the choir. This was the first introduction, completed 1862, of gas lighting into the cathedral.

 

The choir in 1858. All furnishings have been removed. The scaffolding was for placing new statues on the walls.

The possibility of making the entire nave roof out of stone was considered, but difficulties of weight and wall support prevented this happening. A new reredos was added to the end of the choir and before Chad’s shrine with most of the work done by John Birnie Philip. It has statues made from alabaster obtained near Tutbury. They are not shown in the proposed drawing.

 

Drawing by G. G. Scott of proposed reredos for the high altar.

 

The section behind the altar table was given red marble[10] from Newhaven, Derbyshire. Inlay included red jasper, blue john and malachite green stone.[11] The tiles, designed by Scott, were given by Minton of Stoke and the inserted roundels were innovative.[12] Woodwork, including the bishop’s cathedra, was executed by William Evans[13] of Ellastone.[14]  A new pulpit in the nave was made by Skidmore. Iron grilles at the end of the choir aisles were made by Atterton of Lichfield. The eagle lectern was by John Hardman. All this was a celebration of Midland’s craftsmanship. A new font designed by William Slater and executed by James Forsyth was placed in the north transept. The sedilia canopies by the current reredos were formed from stonework obtained from the early screen and reredos of the cathedral with some repair necessary.

The choir in 1860. Wyatt’s marble paved floor is being replaced by Minton tiles. The mobile scaffold was used to remove the limewash from the ceiling and walls.

Substantial repair to the Chapter House roof was needed. Many of the stone heads inside were refurbished. The altar platform, or dais, at the east end was removed. Restoration of the consistory court revealed early stonework which baffled Scott and has since been the object for fanciful speculation, see the post ‘Rooms south of the choir.’ The current library was constructed in the treasury room above the Chapter House and an adjacent chapel and its contents sorted, see the post ‘Old Library.’ The south transept monuments in remembrance to fallen soldiers were reordered and a metal grille separating the chapel was installed. Bishop Selwyn’s monument on the south side of the Lady Chapel was completed in 1892.

Early photograph of Selwyn’s monument

 

A new reredos in the Lady Chapel was made at Oberammergau and accepted to show Tyrolean figures, see the post ‘Lady Chapel and Sainte-Chapelle’. The stonework of the Lady Chapel windows was comprehensively repaired together with rebuilding buttresses and southside chambers. This was repeated with the Chapter House windows. Finally, the central tower and spire had to have considerable restoration. During this work it was found that stonework in the transepts needed rebuilding. Indeed, a buttress against the north transept collapsed.

This is an abridged list of changes made to mostly the interior and shows the Victorian clergy and builders improved and conserved almost the whole building. The cathedral had a fundamental reconstruction. The notion the cathedral was returned to how it more-or-less looked in the Middle Ages has been a common abstraction, but is more wishful-thinking than reality. However, the wonder is that from the ashes of the Civil War a beautiful (Victorian) church has been recovered. According to Cobb[15] the recovery from 1856–1908 cost £98,000 (today equal to £10.5 million, but this must have been a minimum cost not accounting for donated materials and consultation).

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[1] J. Morris, A People’s church. A History of the Church of England. (London: 2022), 140.

[2] Known as Ecclesiastical Commissioners Act 1840, In fact, there were many further Acts until 1885. There were many in the church who opposed the measures, see J.L.K. Bruce, ‘Speech Delivered in the House of Lords on Behalf of the Deans and Chapters Petitioning Against the Bill, 23 July 1840.’ (Harvard: 1840). It was promoted by Robert Peel who wrote, ‘that such was the state of spiritual destitution in some of the largest societies in this country, in some of the great manufacturing towns, that it could not be for the interest of the Church of England to permit that destitution to exist without some vigorous effort to apply a remedy.’

[3] Ibid, 7. In 1666 and 1691, contracts were given to re-whitewash the whole of the interior walls; this being easier than removing the original layer.

[4]  The architects James Wyatt, 1788-95, and Sydney Smirke, 1842-46, made small changes and some restoration, but arguably kept the cathedral as it was post-Civil war. Pews were removed and the nave brick floor was replaced with Hopton stone slabs.

[5] Restoration had concentrated on the frame of the cathedral, especially repairing almost every roof.

[6] J. Britton,The history and antiquities of the See and cathedral church of Lichfield. (London: 1820), 75.

[7] Largely known as Sir Gilbert Scott.  Simon Jenkins called him the 'unsung hero of British architecture'.

[8] J. G. Lonsdale, ‘Recollections of the work done and in upon Lichfield Cathedral, 1856–1894’. (Lichfield: 1895), 1–38.

[9] There were no statues in the choir before 1856, but they had been mentioned in the 18th century and used to model the current figures.

[10] Also known as ‘Duke’s red’ from the Chatsworth estate. It was a rare form of marble.

[11] From the Derbyshire mines. Derbyshire was part of the diocese until 1906.

[12] Herbert Minton donated tiles to over 150 churches in the Lichfield diocese by 1858. Upon his death in 1858 he was succeeded by Colin Minton Campbell who donated the Minton tiles to the cathedral in this year.

[13] George Eliot’s uncle. Some state it was her cousin (H. Snowden Ward, Lichfield and its cathedral, (Bradford and London: 1892). It was reputed William Evans was the inspiration for Seth in her book ‘Adam Bede’.

[14] Woodwork carvings include figures of the Apostles with their emblems. On the right-hand side of the choir are: a figure of a king and a bishop with angels at the sides, then follow St Andrew with a transverse cross, St Jude with a club raised, St Philip with a cross, St Thomas with an arrow, St Bartholomew with a knife and St Simon with a saw. The carved panels at the ends represent Saul's jealousy of David, Miriam with a timbrel in her hand, Saul's daughter despising David and alternate groups of angels playing musical instruments. On the left-hand side of the choir is a figure of a bishop and a king with angels at the sides, then follow St James the Great with a pastoral staff, St Matthew with a box, St James the Less with a club, St John the Evangelist with a cup, St Peter with the keys and St Paul with a sword. The carved panels at the ends represent Jephtha's rash vow, David playing before Saul and alternate groups of angels playing musical instruments. Taken from J. B. Stone, A history of Lichfield Cathedral: from its foundation to the present time. (London: 1870), 68–9.

[15] G. Cobb, English Cathedrals the forgotten centuries. Restoration and change from 1530 to the present day. (London, 1980), 238. Cobb quoted J. E. W. Wallis and O. Hedley (Pitkin: 1974)), 24.

James Wyatt's restoration, 1787-92

Summary. James Wyatt, a local architect specialising in neo-classical style, was commissioned 1781 to reorder the east end of the cathedral having been neglected since the Civil War. Wyatt preferred simplicity, destroying chapels, tombs and rood screens in the name of architectural purification. Victorian renovators criticised his idea of removing Gothic features even though the fabric was in need of replacement.

    Between the post-Civil War reparation, mid-17th century, and the mid-18th century, most medieval cathedrals were disregarded by architects as they turned their attention to classical Roman and Greek stately homes. Then from around 1770 began a ‘Gothic Revival’ and a use of new materials (Roman cement and Coade stone - a mix of clay, terracotta, silicates, and glass). The early work proved to be a disaster.

Portrait of James Wyatt

 

James Wyatt, 1746–1813,[1] a local architect specialising in neo-classical style, was commissioned to upgrade the choir-presbytery area of the cathedral and this led to further fundamental repair of the stonework. The initial project was for the convenience of worshippers and the subsequent project was for the restoration of part of the cathedral. His work[2]^,[3]. was heavily criticised, especially in a later time by Victorian restorers, but it was not always his fault. He has been identified as the first of the ‘Gothic romantics’.[4] He showed a building would thrill by its sheer scale, so opening it up to a greater size and making it simpler, as well as dark and gloomy, was his idea of beauty. His problem was he removed areas of the cathedral, such as a large presbytery, which had a ritual function. Wyatt preferred simplicity destroying chapels, tombs and rood screens in the name of architectural purification.[5]

 

Layout of the church at some time between 1700 and 1739 as drawn by William Walmisley for Stebbing Shaw’s book, 1798.  Note the heavy screen between the crossing and the choir.

First project: Changes for convenience of worshippers.

Wyatt was asked in 1781 to forward suggestions for reordering the eastern end of the cathedral and plans were submitted in 1785. In March 1787, work began to increase the size of the choir area and make it more comfortable for clergy, choristers, and congregation. Whenever, there was a sermon on the second Sunday in the month all the listeners in the choir stalls had to move to the nave where the pulpit was positioned. They joined parishioners from the town, many having attended worship in their own churches. The cathedral was cold and showed signs of age. Wyatt estimated the work would cost £2020 (a few changes were made later)

At the end of 1787, pews and the pulpit were removed from the nave. The old pulpit went to Elford Church. The nave brick floor was replaced with Derbyshire Hopton Stone slabs. Grave stones and some coffins were taken outside; one grave had to be buried deeper. The nave now became an empty area with only the font present. The seating in the choir area was then extended into the Lady Chapel, which meant the removal of an old stone screen that had separated the two sections. This sculptured screen with six statues had been covered in whitewash during the Civil War. It was now cleaned, repaired with plaster, and located in the approach to the choir from the crossing. A small organ was placed on top.

James Wyatt’s first drawing for renovating the sculptured screen. The screen was considerably altered with two tiers added.

                    

                             The screen looking along the nave.

 James Wyatt’s drawing of the sculptured screen viewed from the choir towards the nave, c. 1780.  

Screen drawn in Britton 1820.

The wooden reredos was discarded.[6] Bishop Hacket’s monument was moved to the south choir aisle and his cathedra (bishop’s chair) with two stalls moved to the Consistory Court. See the post, ‘Bishop John Hacket.’ The old high altar was given to St Chad’s church. The new one had a 7-branched candlestick. Some prebend’s stalls were removed and 48 repainted; 24 were placed each side of the middle aisle. On the north side the stalls extended to the pulpit and on the south side were limited by the new cathedra. Vaultings were cleaned and windows repaired. The old floor had previously been paved in a lozenge (diamond) pattern with black cannel coal from Beaudesert and white alabaster. It was replaced with grey and white marble tiles in a lozenge pattern. The six richly painted wall statues in the choir of Peter, Virgin Mary, Mary Magdalen, Philip, James, and Christopher had been badly mutilated in the Civil War and were removed. Plaster buttresses and pinnacles were added to the Lady Chapel; but later removed by G. Gilbert Scott. The Lady Chapel was given a painted window of the Resurrection executed by Francis Eginton.[7] Two adjoining windows were left to receive painted windows once funds were found. The rest of the Lady Chapel windows were given curtains to retain heat and help focus on the end window. After the Civil War the four western choir bays had been filled between the pillars with stalls to reduce draughts. These bays and four eastern bays in the presbytery were now filled in with plaster. A simple heating system was added. The bishops throne and two sub-stalls were re-used in the Consistory Court.

These changes left a long, narrow, dark, warmer and draughtproof church within and separate from a cold cathedral. Critics moaned the Gothic cathedral had been reduced in style, the eastern altar was difficult to see and acoustics had been changed. Wyatt was only following the wishes of the cathedral managers. Indeed, he opposed the filling in of the bays, but had to accede to the demands of churchmen. Joseph Potter carried out the alteration and he too came in for criticism.

 

Plan of cathedral in 1820, from Britton, showing the extended choir-presbytery. 

Second project: Necessary Restoration

 During the alteration of the nave and choir alarming structural problems, such as cracks in the nave wall, were uncovered. A letter in 1788[8] stated the cathedral had grown much out of order and was in some parts ruinous. In March 1788, Wyatt estimated the cost of repair and restoration to be £5950. Subscriptions from the church and diocese amounted to £3270. A request for funds was sent to the diocesan clergy and the total increased to £5200. The shortfall was then borrowed. Work started immediately in 1788; it overlapped the work in the choir. 

          Five of the seven stone vaults (bays 2–6) in the roof of the nave were replaced with stucco, lath and plaster, and painted wood to reduce the weight of the roof[9] and stop the pushing outwards of the walls. Lead on the roof was replaced with stone slates. Three additional trusses were added to the roof and the pitch was lowered. Three stone buttresses were repaired. The roofs of the side aisles were raised to the height they were before the Civil War to give additional support to the walls. In later years this artificial Gothic roof was much derided. It is difficult to know whether the funds raised would have enabled a new, lighter stone roof, even if it could have been fabricated. When G. Gilbert Scott was later asked if the roof could be returned to a stone structure, he declined. Many visitors do not notice the roof is false.

    On the west wall of the nave Wyatt added an imitation Georgian gallery made of timber and plaster. The flimsy platform was removed by Scott. 

Drawing of the gallery (Britton 1820)

          The inside and outside steps were repaired. All columns, including capitals and bases, were supposedly restored. Windows were reglazed. A rebuild of the clerestory was abandoned. The middle spire was taken down and rebuilt, but no date for this is known. Wyatt’s work ended in 1793[10] and Joseph Potter became the cathedral architect. However, there is some evidence Potter was acting for Wyatt; it is unclear.

 Further repair and renovation with Joseph Potter[11] either organising or acting as Wyatt’s agent.

          Much stone work was re-pointed, despite considerable repairs between 1773 and 1780 when local masons carried out a general maintenance of the roofs and walls. New, very large, tapering buttresses were added to the south transept; the date for this is not known. The south spire was strengthened in 1794.[12] Between 1795–7, the groins, walls, and roof of the north transept were repaired extensively. Windows in the transepts were ornamented with the arms of the nobility and gentry of the diocese at their expense. In 1796, the vestry or sacristy off the south choir aisle was appropriated for use as a consistory court. In 1799, access to the library was improved.

 

          James Wyatt in retrospect is either admired or loathed. He ignored or removed much medieval Gothic architecture and replaced it with ‘Georgian Gothic’ including the use of much sculptured stucco. Pugin called him ‘the destroyer’ and Potter ‘the pupil of the wretch himself.’ Many of his works did not last; many being removed in the counter-culture of Victorian high Gothic.[13] Despite his charming, amiable, hard-working, and accommodating nature, Wyatt frequently pushed ahead with great renovation having little regard for heritage. Those who loved gothic architecture were astonished at his depredation. He rarely recycled preferring to use instead new materials and methods. This worked well for large residences, but subsequently seen to be insensitive and disastrous for old churches and cathedrals. In mitigation it has been said Wyatt made great improvements with the lowest cost, but there is evidence his charges were not always low. Some thought him to be original and creative, but churchmen often found out too late this was not what resulted. The reality is the churchmen should equally have been held responsible.

          Cobb[14] wrote, “It must be remembered that architects to cathedrals were never given carte-blanche (at least not in theory) to carry out a repair or alteration. They were employees of the Dean and Chapter and credit for whatever improvement or vandalism was effected should be shared in varying degrees between architect and cathedral body.”         

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[1] Born 1746, at Blackbrook Farm, Weeford (side of A38, now an antique centre). He became the ‘Surveyor General of the King’s Works’ to George III.

[2] T. Cox, T. Survey of the ancient and present state of Great Britain. (London: 1738), 231–332.

[3] J. M. Frew, ‘Cathedral improvement: James Wyatt at Lichfield Cathedral, 1787–92, South Staffordshire Archaeological and Historical Society Transactions for 1977–8. (1979), 19, 33–46.

[4] M. J. Lewis, The Gothic Revival. (London: 2002), 38.

[5] Ibid. 41. “His freewheeling restorations of Durham, Salisbury, Hereford and Westminster Abbey earned him an indelible reputation for ruthlessness”. “His controlling idea was to treat the cathedral as an artistic whole, to unify its disparate parts into one overwhelming space.”

[6] The reredos was a gift of Dean Smallwood in 1678 and was a replica of one in the Royal Chapel of Whitehall Palace. It was alleged to have been designed by Christopher Wren; Dean Savage stated this was fiction. It is possible the screen was left in the Sacristy, but thereafter its fate is unknown. See R. Prentis, ‘Rearranging the furniture, 1785–2010’, Unpub. article in Cathedral Library. (2013).

[7] Some assumed it was taken from a design by Joshua Reynolds, but there is no evidence.

[8] From Dr Simon Pegge, a prebendary and antiquarian of the cathedral.

[9] Estimated to have been 500 tons, causing a bowing outward of 13–14 inches. The new roof was estimated to be one twentieth the original weight.

[10] Between 1787 and 1793 Wyatt appears to be acting alone without Joseph Potter.

[11] Joseph Potter junior became the cathedral architect 1794-1842. He was responsible for many changes on the west front, including the use of Roman Cement for restoring the statues. See R. B. Lockett, ‘Joseph Potter: Cathedral architect at Lichfield 1794–1842, South Staffordshire Archaeological and Historical Society Transactions 1979–1980. (1980), 21, 34–49.

[12] In 1842, the top 41 feet had to be rebuilt.

[13] It is possible Wyatt’s Georgian Gothic and Gilbert Scott’s Victorian Gothic have minimal imitation of medieval Gothic. Both claimed they knew what a Gothic cathedral should look like, but both were products of their own times. Also, materials and methods have also changed over time. Architects need to criticise past innovation in order to substantiate new design.

[14] G. Cobb, English Cathedrals. The forgotten centuries. Restoration and change from 1530 to the present day. (London: 1980), 11.